Negotiations in Organization

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Interdependent parties are characterized by interlocking goals which means the parties need each other in order to accomplish their objectives, and hence have the potential to influence each other. However, that having interdependent goals does not mean that everyone wants or needs exactly the same thing. Different project team members may need different things, but they must work together for each to accomplish their goals. This mix of convergent and conflicting goals characterizes many interdependent relationships.

The interdependence of people’s goals and the negotiating situations strongly shapes negotiation processes and outcomes. This interdependence can be featured into two situations. They are:

- Distributive or Zero-sum situation

When the goals of two or more people are interconnected so that only one can achieve the goal this is known as a zero-sum or distributive situation, in which “individuals are so linked together that there is a negative correlation between their goal attainments” (Deutsch, 1962, p. 276). In a zero-sum situation, it is impossible for one party to advance its position without the other party suffering a corresponding loss. The wins and losses add up to zero. These situations typically arise in situations where a "fixed pie" must be divided between the parties. For example, if two departments are splitting up a fixed amount of money, the more one gets the less available to the other.

- Integrative or Non- zero-sum situation

When parties’ goals are linked so that one person’s goal achievement helps others to achieve their goals, it is a mutual-gains situation. It is known as a non-zero-sum or integrative situation, where there is a positive correlation between the goal attainments of both parties. Here different interests are negotiated to meet every side’s needs. For example, one department might agree to take over some of the jobs of another department that it could do at a lower cost. This would make up for some of the lost money, even though the absolute amount of money was not expanded. The more different interests that are on the table for discussion, the more likely a positive sum solution can be worked out.

5. Define Conflict.

Ans. Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising between parties when the beliefs or actions of one party are either resisted by or unacceptable to the other parties.

According to Pruitt and Rubin, conflict is a “sharp disagreement or opposition, as of interests, ideas, etc.” and includes “the perceived divergence of interest, or a belief that the parties’ current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously”. According to Hocker and Wilmot conflict results from “the interaction of interdependent people who perceived incompatible goals and interference from each other in achieving those goals”

6. Discuss the levels of conflict.

Ans. There are four levels of conflict. They are discussed below:

- Intrapersonal or intrapsychic conflict

These conflicts occur within an individual. Sources of conflict can include ideas, thoughts, emotions, values, predispositions, or drives that are in conflict with each other.

- Interpersonal conflict

A second major level of conflict is between individuals. Interpersonal conflict occurs between co-workers, spouses, siblings, roommates or neighbors.

- Intragroup conflict

A third major level of conflict is within a group i.e. among team and work group members and within families, classes, living units, and tribes. At this level, conflict affects the ability of the group to make decisions, work productively, resolve its differences, and continue to achieve its goals effectively.

- Intergroup conflict

The final level of conflict is intergroup i.e. between organizations, ethnic groups, warring nations, or feuding families or within splintered, fragmented communities. At this level, conflict is quite intricate because of the large number of people involved and the multitudinous ways they can interact with each other. Negotiations at this level are also the most complex

7. Discuss the elements that have contributed to the negative image of conflict.

Ans. Conflict is seen a bad thing by most people. It is believed that conflict is an indication that something is wrong and it creates largely destructive consequences. Deutsch (1973) and others have elaborated on many of the elements that contribute to conflict’s destructive image:

- Competitive, win–lose goals

Parties compete against each other because they believe that their interdependence is such that goals are in opposition and both cannot simultaneously achieve their objectives.

- Misperception and bias.

As conflict intensifies, perceptions become distorted. People come to view things consistently with their own perspective of the conflict. Hence, they tend to interpret people and events as being either with them or against them. As a result thinking tends to become stereotypical and biased.

- Emotionality.

Conflicts tend to become emotionally charged as the parties become anxious, irritated, annoyed, angry, or frustrated. Emotions overwhelm clear thinking, and the parties may become increasingly irrational as the conflict escalates.

- Decreased communication

Productive communication declines with conflict. Parties communicate less with those who disagree with them and more with those who agree. The communication that does occur is often an attempt to defeat, demean, or debunk the other’s view or to strengthen one’s own prior arguments.

- Blurred issues

The central issues in the dispute become blurred and less well defined. The conflict becomes a black hole that sucks in unrelated issues and innocent bystanders. The parties become less clear about how the dispute started, what it is “really about,” or what it will take to solve it.

- Rigid commitments

The parties become locked into positions. As the other side challenges them, parties become more committed to their