Developmental Psychology

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- The remaining 35% could not be easily classified.

- Temperament predicts adjustment.

- The easy infant is generally better adjusted as an adult.

- The slow-to-warm-up infant is more likely to experience anxiety or depression.

- The difficult infants are most likely to develop mental health problems, however, they are highly spirited and aren’t “pushovers”.

- Temperament is shaped by both nature and nurture.

- Children are better able to adapt successfully to their environment when parents, teachers, and other caregivers take their underlying temperaments into account.

- Kagan found that mothers who relate to their inhibited children in nurturing, but not overly protective ways can help them overcome fearfulness of new experiences

Attachment: Binding Ties

- Attachment is the enduring emotional bond that infants and older children form with their caregivers.

- Attachment and bonding are two different things; bonding is the parent’s tie to the infant that may form in the hours following birth.

- Attachment develops over time during infancy.

Attachment Behaviors in Other Animal Species

- Konrad Lorenz studied the process of imprinting in geese and other species.

- Imprinting- the formation of a strong bond of the newborn animal to the first moving object seen after birth.

- A gosling will follow its mother or objects (if hatched in an incubator).

- Psychologists Harry and Marguerite Harlow showed that baby monkeys developed attachment behaviors to inanimate objects placed in their cages.

- Monkeys favored a soft, terry-cloth-covered cylinder than a wired cylinder.

- Contact comfort > food.

Attachment in Human Infants

- Psychologist Mary Ainsworth developed a laboratory-based method, called the strange situation, to observe how infants react to separations and reunions with their caregivers. She noted 3 basic attachment styles.

Secure type (Type B)

Used mother as a secure base for exploring the environment, periodically looking around to check her whereabouts; sometimes cried when the mother left bur warmly greeted her and were easily soothed. (65-70%)

Insecure-avoidant type (Type A)

Paid little attention to their mother and were separated easily from her to explore; showed little distress when the mother parted and ignored her when she returned. (20%)

Insecure-resistant type (Type C)

Clung to the mother and were reluctant to explore; showed high levels of distress when the mother departed and continued to stress despite the mother’s attempts to comfort them; also showed ambivalence or resistance toward the mom, reaching out to her one minute then rebuffing her the next. (10%)

- A fourth type of attachment style: Type D (disorganized/disoriented); lacked a consistent or organized strategy for responding to separations and reunions; seemed confused and were unable to approach their mother directly for support even though they were distressed.

- This method may be appropriate for assessing attachment behaviors in children from cultures with different child-rearing practices.

- A more securely attached infant is likely to be better adjusted in childhood and adolescence than a less securely attached infant. (ex. Self esteem, cooperativeness and independence, fewer behavior problems such as aggressiveness or withdrawal, better relationships with peers, better overall emotional health).

Effects of Day Care on Attachment

- There are no effects of day-care placement on the security of infant-mother attachments.

- High-quality day care centers help foster independence and cooperative play; it has positive effects on cognitive and emotional development.

Child-Rearing Influences

- Many factors influence a child’s intellectual, emotional, and social development, such as genetics, influences, and the quality of parenting.

- Peer relationships give children opportunities to develop socially competent behaviors.

- Acceptance and approval of peers help shape the child’s developing self-esteem and sense of competence.

- However, negative consequences include children and adolescents having a need for acceptance and being influenced by peers to engage in deviant activities.

- Good parenting: spending time with children, modeling appropriate behaviors, helping children acquire skills to develop healthy relationships, stating rules clearly, setting limits, being consistent in correcting inappropriate behavior, praising good behavior, and providing a warm, secure environment.

- Inconsistent discipline, harsh punishment, and high criticism likely cause problem behaviors at home and school and unhealthy peer relationships.

Father’s Influence

- Children whose fathers share meals with them, spend leisure time with them, and assist them with schoolwork tend to perform better academically.

- Children in two-parent households tend to fare better academically and socially, despite income levels.

- Fathers typically provide less basic care, but engage in more physical play activities.

Cultural Differences in Parenting

- Culture learning has a strong bearing on child bearing; all cultures help children move from a state of dependency to assuming more responsibility for their own behavior.

Parenting Styles

- Diana Baumrind identified three basic parenting styles

Authoritative

Most successful; parents set reasonable limits but are not