Reverse Discrimination

...

(Wentling, 2000). Recent

studies show that a small number of institutions have become leading exporters of higher education degrees in less developed countries, as a result, the population of third world countries deals with a disparity in education. Universities ́ inclusion programs are aimed at lessening this disparity (Hendel, 2005). According to Moral Character, favoring minorities in diversity-based programs is a moral practice, as it is seeks the good for others for others ‘own sakes.

Direct Consequentialism states that whether an act is morally right depends on the expected or foreseen consequences of that act itself (Sinnott-Armstrong, 2003). “Studies have focused on one active strategy that intends to diminish discrimination at the workplace, called group identity (identifying a multicultural culture in the workforce), which is expected to decrease the negative impact of appraisals of discrimination on psychological outcome” (Foster, 1999, p.175). Inactive strategies may provide victims of discrimination with more time to process their experience and gain the necessary resources to decrease stress; However, secondary active strategies involving actions to help the victims of discrimination (as diversity programs) are more helpful. (Foster, 1999). “Racial identity has been linked to the psychological health and well-being of African Americans” (Sellers, 2003, p.17). Sellers found that diversity based programs are intended to improve minorities ́ psychological health. As this is a direct consequence expected of the act of favoring certain groups, it is considered moral from the point of view of direct consequentialism.

According to the previously stated facts one can agree that diversity based programs in institutions are immoral. This is supported by theories such as Actual Consequentialism, Virtue Ethics and Kant ́s Moral Philosophy. As presented in the previous arguments, actual consequentialism, to judge the morality of an action, takes into account only the real consequences; which are inequality and reverse discrimination to majorities. Virtue Ethics argues that a virtue must be entrenched to its possessor, being accompanied by desires of doing the right. In many cases, as presented throughout the essay, the main reason of favoring minorities is for

institutions to reflect diversity and promote themselves as socially responsible. Lastly, Kant establishes that people should never be used as means to an end. As reviewed previously, most Institutions use people as means to promote diversity when they favor them over others. Therefore, taking into account these ethical theories, favoring minorities in order to reflect diversity, is not considered a moral action.

This essay presented six arguments that discussed the morality of diversity- based programs. The immorality of this act is supported by theories such as Actual Consequentialism, Virtue Ethics and Kant ́s Moral Philosophy. The theories that defend the morality of the act are Direct Consequentialism, Agent-Centered Deontology and Kant ́s Categorical Imperative. The contrast between both positions was objectively analyzed in order to develop an ethical position that supports the immorality of diversity-based programs in institutions.

REFERENCES

Alexander, L. & Moore, M. (2012). Deontological Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Retrieved from: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/ethics- deontological/

Bales, R. E., (1971). “Act-utilitarianism: account of right-making characteristics or decision-making procedures?”, American Philosophical Quarterly, 8: 257–65. Retrieved from: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/

Elkins, T. (2001). Evaluating gender discrimination claims: Is there a gender similarity bias? Sex Roles, 44(1), 1-15. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A%3A1011059131505

Ford, D. Y. (2014). On black diversity in higher education: We are not there yet. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 31(15), 37. Retrieved from http://diverseeducation.com/article/66775/

Foster, M.D. (1999). Acting out against gender discrimination. The effects of different social identities. Sex Roles, 40(3),167-186. Retrieved from: http://www.springer.com/psychology/personality+%26+social+psychology/jour nal/11199

Gullett, C. R. (2000). Reverse discrimination and remedial affirmative action in employment: Dealing with the paradox of nondiscrimination. Public Personnel Management, 29(1), 107-118. Retrieved from: http://ppm.sagepub.com/content/29/1/107.full.pdf

Hendel, D. D. (2005). Quality assurance of higher education in transition countries: Accreditation -- accountability and assessment.Tertiary Education and



Management, 11(3), 239-258. Retrieved from: http://reforma.fen.uchile.cl/Papers/Quality%20Assurance%20of%20Higher%2 0Education%20in%20Transition%20Countries%20- %20Hendel,%20Lewis.pdf

Homiak, M. (2003) Moral Character, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed). Retrieved from: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2011/entries/moral-character/.

Hursthouse, Rosalind. (2013) Virtue Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved from: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/ethics-virtue/.

Johnson, R. (2014) Kant’s Moral Philosophy. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Retrieved from: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/kant-moral/.

Lutterman, A. (2003). Educating about diversity and global issues. Transformations, XIX(2), 101. Retrieved from: http://www.transformationsjournal.org/journal/index.shtml

Pewewardy, C. (2013). 100 defensive tactics and attributions: Dodging the dialogue on cultural diversity. Multicultural Education,20(3), 9-14,110. Retrieved from: http://oregonname.org/pdf/100_Defensive_Tactics_Pewewardy.pdf

Ponterotto, J (1987). Construct Validity Study of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale."Journal of Counseling Psychology 34(2):218-23. Retrieved from: http://tcp.sagepub.com/



Rosenberg, Lisa,PhD. (2011). The diversity pyramid: An organizational model to structure diversity recruitment and retention in nursing programs. Journal of Nursing Education, 50(10), 555-560. Retrieved from: http://www.healio.com/nursing/journals/jne/2011-10-50-10/%7B03fa331f- ad2d-49f5-a7f5-d5a0ae772089%7D/the-diversity-pyramid-an-organizational- model-to-structure-diversity-recruitment-and-retention-in-nursing-programs.

Robert , L and Nagai,,A (1999) Racial Preferences in Virginia

...